While it is tempting to view their meeting as the apex of a newly rejigged axis of power, in reality, Putin returned from Beijing with few concrete measures to offer to his people, though both he and Xi gained an additional boost to their symbolic partnership.

Kremlin leader Vladimir Putin has kept pressing Moscow’s demands for “security guarantees” from the West, including an undertaking that NATO would expand no further and Ukraine would never become a member.

Putin said the Kremlin’s chief concerns remained unanswered – guarantees from the West that NATO would expand no further and that Ukraine would never be permitted to join.

Moscow has repeatedly denied it has any intention of invading Ukraine but has held several rounds of talks with Western countries and NATO on its demand for “security guarantees“ that the Atlantic alliance will expand no further and Ukraine will never become a member.